Table 1 Identified receptors for short-chain fatty acids

GPR41

(FFAR3)

Acetate

Propionate

Butyrate

Kidney;

Spleen;

Bone marrow;

Lymph nodes; Adipocytes;

Pancreatic beta cells; Enteroendocrine cells;

Vascular endothelial cells;

Peripheral nervous system cells, etc

Inhibits cellular proliferation and provokes apoptotic responses;

Regulates energy homeostasis; Modulates T-cell differentiation and immune responses;

Facilitates sympathetic activation and triggers the release of the anorexigenic gut hormone, peptide YY (PYY)

[15,16,17,18,19]

GPR43

(FFAR2)

Acetate

Propionate

Butyrate

Adipocytes;

Eosinophils;

Basophils;

Neutrophils;

Immune cells, etc

Lipid metabolism;

Energy homeostasis;

Immune response;

Neutrophil migration;

Inhibition of fat accumulation;

Secretion of enteric prohormones GLP-1, insulin and IgA

[20, 21]

GPR109A

(HCAR2)

Butyrate

Intestinal epithelial cells;

Adipocytes;

Neutrophils;

Macrophages;

Monocytes;

Dendritic cells, etc

Organismal metabolism;

Cancer;

Immunomodulation

[22]

Olfr78

(Olfactory receptor)

Acetate

Propionate

Vascular smooth muscle cells

Control of blood pressure;

Automatic regulation of tissue blood flow

[23,24,25]

HDACi

Propionate

Butyrate

Histone

Anti-tumour;

Anti-fibrotic;

anti-inflammatory properties;

Regulates the expression of immunomodulatory genes

[26, 27]

AHR

Butyrate

Treg;

Dendritic cells;

Stem cells

Modulation of immunity

[13]

PPARc

Propionate

Butyrate

Adenocarcinoma cells of the colon

Stimulation of angiopoietin-like protein 4 (ANGPTL 4) synthesis

[14]