Fig. 3
From: Gut microbial metabolites SCFAs and chronic kidney disease
SCFAs improve energy metabolism pathways. SCFAs can enhance energy metabolism in CKD patients by eliciting the secretion of GLP-1 and PYY from colonic enteroendocrine cells, activating PGC-1a and AMPK through interactions with peroxisome proliferator receptors in muscle and liver, stimulating the expression of UCP and PGC-1a in brown adipose tissue, engaging GLP-1-mediated neural circuits via free fatty acid receptors, down-regulating the expression of appetite-regulating neuropeptides in the thalamus through the TCC activation, directly promoting the proliferation of pancreatic β-cells via GPR43 binding, and inducing the release of norepinephrine through GPR41 binding in the sympathetic nervous system