Fig. 2

Mechanisms by which SCFAs regulate inflammatory responses. SCFAs regulate gene expression related to inflammation and immunity by inhibiting the NF-κ B and MAPK pathways and curtailing cAMP synthesis. Furthermore, they influence the mitochondrial/AMPK/mTOR pathway using transporters such as MCT1/4, SMCT1/2, and passive diffusion, leading to the inhibition of histone deacetylation. Additionally, they augment MKP expression, thus diminishing the MAPK pathway and resulting in anti-inflammatory effects