Protein-bound Uremic toxins | Effects | Refs. |
---|---|---|
Indoxyl sulfate | Increase of IL-1β and TNF-α in human monocytes | [37] |
 | Induction of TNF-α in macrophages | [39] |
 | Elicit adhesion and extravasation of leukocytes in mice | [41] |
Indole-3-acetic acid | Damage of DNA and ultrastructural in neutrophils | |
 | Resulting in death of neutrophils | |
p-Cresol sulfate | Increase of the percentage of free radical-producing leucocytes | [47] |
 | Inhibition of the production of IFN-γ in mouse T cells | [49] |
 | Inhibition of IL-12 in macrophages | [50] |
 | Suppression of the proliferation of CD43+ B-cell progenitors | [51] |
Reno-protective metabolites | Effects | Refs. |
---|---|---|
Butyrate | Decrease of urine BUN and Scr levels; attenuation of renal pathology; reduction of macrophage infiltration and kidney inflammation | [60] |
 | Improvement of intestinal barrier and insulin sensitivity | [61] |
Acetate | Retard of inflammation by inhibiting histone acetylation (HDAC) activity of T cells | [62] |
Propionate | Alleviation of the increased Scr and BUN via the fatty acid receptor 2 (FFA2) or FFA3 pathway | [63] |
 | Inhibition of inflammation in HD patients | [64] |